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Studying human history involves reconstructing the record of humankind from early hominin evolution to the present. Researchers combine evidence from history, archaeology, anthropology, linguistics, and genetics to understand biological evolution, migration, technology, social organization, belief systems, economic change, and interactions among societies. Major developments include the evolution of Homo in Africa, the spread of Homo sapiens across the world, the Neolithic transition to agriculture and settled life, and the emergence of cities, writing, states, and civilizations. To make this vast subject accessible, scholars use periodization, dividing history into broad periods based on significant technological, social, political, cultural, or economic changes. Common divisions include prehistory, the ancient period, the post-classical period, the early modern period, and the modern period. These boundaries are approximate and vary across regions: the Neolithic Revolution began at different times, civilizations developed independently, and changes such as industrialization and globalization did not occur simultaneously everywhere. Periodization is therefore a useful framework rather than a single, universally applicable chronology.
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Human evolution began in Africa, where hominins emerged from great apes approximately 7–5 million years ago. Early hominins developed bipedalism and began using simple stone tools by about 3.3 million years ago. Climate changes that made Africa drier, colder, and less forested likely influenced this evolutionary process. The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus, with Homo habilis showing a significant increase in brain size and Homo erectus emerging around 2 million years ago. Modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa approximately 300,000 years ago from Homo heidelbergensis and became anatomically modern by about 125,000 years ago. Early humans lived mainly as nomadic hunter-gatherers, developed language, used fire, created art, and practiced burial and ornamentation. Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa in several waves, with the major migration occurring roughly 70,000–50,000 years ago. Humans eventually populated nearly all ice-free regions of the world, while interbreeding with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and other hominins.
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