Hormones: signaling, receptors, and regulation

Hormones as distant signaling molecules

Hormones are distant signaling molecules used by multicellular organisms to regulate physiology and behavior across body regions. They are produced in one tissue (often endocrine glands in vertebrates) and act on target organs or cells far away by binding to specific receptors, which triggers signal transduction pathways and changes in cell function—commonly leading to altered gene transcription and protein expression. Hormones can also act through non-genomic mechanisms that work alongside genomic effects. Hormonal signaling depends on hormone chemistry and transport. Water-soluble hormones (e.g., peptides and amines) typically act at cell-surface receptors via second messengers, while lipid-soluble hormones (e.g., steroids) can cross the plasma membrane and bind intracellular receptors, including nuclear receptors that regulate gene expression. In vertebrates, hormones travel through the bloodstream; water-soluble hormones often circulate freely, whereas lipid-soluble hormones may require carrier binding proteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin) to stabilize and transport them. Secretion and activity are tightly regulated, frequently through negative feedback loops that maintain homeostasis.

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Discovery of hormones: Berthold, Darwin, Oliver-Schäfer

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