Human Pancreas: Structure, Function, and Disease

Pancreas roles: endocrine and exocrine functions

The pancreas is a mixed (heterocrine) gland that carries out both endocrine and exocrine functions. Most of its tissue is exocrine (about 99%), producing digestive secretions, while a smaller portion is endocrine (about 1%), producing hormones that regulate metabolism. Endocrine function: Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) contain hormone-secreting cells—alpha cells (glucagon), beta cells (insulin), and delta cells (somatostatin)—which help maintain blood glucose homeostasis. When blood glucose is high, beta cells release insulin to lower glucose; when glucose is low, alpha cells release glucagon to raise glucose. Somatostatin modulates insulin and glucagon release. Exocrine function: The exocrine pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum via pancreatic ducts. This juice contains bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid and digestive enzymes (zymogens) that break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Overall, the pancreas links digestion with metabolic control, and its dysfunction is central to conditions such as diabetes and pancreatitis.

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Anatomical location and gross subdivisions

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