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Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the small circular genome located inside mitochondria and is essential for cellular energy conversion. In eukaryotes, mitochondria use the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system to convert chemical energy from organic compounds into ATP. mtDNA encodes 13 critical subunits of OXPHOS, so its genetic information directly supports the machinery that produces ATP. In humans, mtDNA contains 37 genes: 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes, distributed across a heavy and a light strand. Transcription and processing of these genes generate the RNAs required for mitochondrial protein synthesis, which in turn helps assemble OXPHOS complexes. Because mtDNA is positioned close to the ATP-producing electron transport system, it is also exposed to reactive oxygen species, making DNA repair and mutation management important for maintaining efficient ATP production.
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