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Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells found in multicellular organisms that can change into various specialized cell types and proliferate to produce more stem cells. They are the earliest cells in a lineage and are present in both embryonic and adult organisms, though their properties differ. In mammals, embryonic stem cells (from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst) can differentiate into nearly all body cell types (pluripotency) and, during development, contribute to the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm). When isolated and cultured, embryonic stem cells can be maintained in a stem-cell state in vitro. A defining role of stem cells is tissue renewal and long-term maintenance. Adult stem cells reside in specific body locations called niches (such as bone marrow or gonads) and are typically multipotent or unipotent, meaning they generate a limited range of cell types needed to replenish rapidly lost cells. Classical stem-cell identity is based on two key properties: self-renewal (maintaining the undifferentiated state through repeated divisions) and potency (the ability to differentiate into specialized cells). Clinically, the most established stem-cell therapy is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, which has been used for decades to restore blood and immune systems, while other stem-cell approaches are still under research and development.
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