World War II: causes, course, and aftermath

Allied and Axis coalitions in global war

World War II was fought between two major coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers. Nearly all major regions and most countries became involved, with the conflict expanding into Europe, the Mediterranean and Middle East, Africa, and the Asia-Pacific. The Axis coalition was led primarily by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, with Japan as the other central power; the Allies were led by the United Kingdom and British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union, China, and later the United States after Japan’s attack on American and British territories in December 1941. The coalitions formed and operated through a mix of formal alliances, wartime coordination, and shared strategic goals. In 1942, the Allies issued the Declaration by United Nations, affirming the Atlantic Charter and committing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis. Allied strategy emphasized defeating Germany first, while balancing competing priorities such as opening a second front in Europe, conducting peripheral operations to weaken German strength, and applying sustained pressure through bombing and offensives. As the war progressed, Axis advances were gradually halted and reversed across multiple theaters, culminating in Germany’s unconditional surrender in May 1945 and Japan’s surrender in August 1945, after which the defeated leaders were tried for war crimes.

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Scale of deaths and civilian targeting

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