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The Renaissance was a European cultural and historical period that began at the end of the Late Middle Ages and the start of the early modern era. It is commonly defined in different ways: either as covering the 15th and 16th centuries, or more broadly as lasting from the 14th century to the 17th century. It is associated with a European “rediscovery and revival” of the literary, philosophical, and artistic achievements of classical antiquity, and it brought major changes in art, architecture, politics, literature, exploration, and technology. Its timing is not uniform across Europe. In Italy, the Renaissance is conventionally said to end with the waning of humanism and the onset of major upheavals such as the Reformation (1517), the Sack of Rome (1527), or the Counter-Reformation (1545), along with the transition to the Baroque in art. Some historians argue for a “long Renaissance,” extending beyond these conventional endpoints into the 17th century (especially outside Italy). In addition, traces of Renaissance developments appear earlier in Italy, with early influences visible in the late 13th century (e.g., Dante and Giotto).
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During the Renaissance, European scholars rediscovered and revived the literary, philosophical, artistic, scientific, and political achievements of classical Greece and Rome. Humanists searched monasteries and libraries for forgotten Latin works by authors such as Cicero, Livy, Seneca, and Lucretius, while Greek scholars arriving in Italy after the fall of Constantinople helped restore access to ancient Greek literature, history, theology, and philosophy. This recovery encouraged renewed study of classical languages and texts and influenced education, literature, architecture, and the visual arts. Classical models shaped Renaissance efforts to represent the human form, nature, perspective, architecture, and political life more realistically. Thinkers combined ancient ideas with Christian beliefs and new observations, leading to developments in art, anatomy, geography, astronomy, medicine, and political theory. The printing press greatly expanded access to recovered texts, allowing classical knowledge and new interpretations to spread from Italy throughout Europe.
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